ManifoldsBase.jl – an interface for manifolds

AbstractEstimationMethod

Abstract type for defining statistical estimation methods.

AbstractInverseRetractionMethod

Abstract type for methods for inverting a retraction (see inverse_retract).

AbstractRetractionMethod

Abstract type for methods for retracting a tangent vector to a manifold.

CoTVector

Type for a cotangent vector of a manifold. While a Manifold does not necessarily require this type, for example when it is implemented for Vectors or Matrix type elements, this type can be used for more complicated representations, semantic verification, or even dispatch for different representations of cotangent vectors and their types on a manifold.

ExponentialRetraction

Retraction using the exponential map.

LogarithmicInverseRetraction

Inverse retraction using the logarithmic map.

MPoint

Type for a point on a manifold. While a Manifold does not necessarily require this type, for example when it is implemented for Vectors or Matrix type elements, this type can be used for more complicated representations, semantic verification, or even dispatch for different representations of points on a manifold.

Manifold{F}

A manifold type. The Manifold is used to dispatch to different functions on a manifold, usually as the first argument of the function. Examples are the exponential and logarithmic maps as well as more general functions that are built on them like the geodesic.

The manifold is parametrized by an AbstractNumbers to distinguish for example real (ℝ) and complex (ℂ) manifolds.

For subtypes the preferred order of parameters is: size and simple value parameters, followed by the AbstractNumbers field, followed by data type parameters, which might depend on the abstract number field type.

OutOfInjectivityRadiusError

An error thrown when a function (for example logarithmic map or inverse_retract) is given arguments outside of its injectivity_radius.

PolarInverseRetraction <: AbstractInverseRetractionMethod

Inverse retractions that are based on a singular value decomposition of the matrix / matrices for point and tangent vector on a Manifold

PolarRetraction <: AbstractRetractionMethod

Retractions that are based on singular value decompositions of the matrix / matrices for point and tangent vector on a Manifold

ProjectionInverseRetraction <: AbstractInverseRetractionMethod

Inverse retractions that are based on a projection (or its inversion).

ProjectionRetraction <: AbstractRetractionMethod

Retractions that are based on projection and usually addition in the embedding.

QRInverseRetraction <: AbstractInverseRetractionMethod

Inverse retractions that are based on a QR decomposition of the matrix / matrices for point and tangent vector on a Manifold

QRRetraction <: AbstractRetractionMethod

Retractions that are based on a QR decomposition of the matrix / matrices for point and tangent vector on a Manifold

TVector

Type for a tangent vector of a manifold. While a Manifold does not necessarily require this type, for example when it is implemented for Vectors or Matrix type elements, this type can be used for more complicated representations, semantic verification, or even dispatch for different representations of tangent vectors and their types on a manifold.

angle(M::Manifold, p, X, Y)

Compute the angle between tangent vectors X and Y at point p from the Manifold M with respect to the inner product from inner.

exp(M::Manifold, p, X)
exp(M::Manifold, p, X, t::Real = 1)

Compute the exponential map of tangent vector X, optionally scaled by t, at point p from manifold the Manifold M.

isapprox(M::Manifold, p, X, Y; kwargs...)

Check if vectors X and Y tangent at p from Manifold M are approximately equal.

Keyword arguments can be used to specify tolerances.

isapprox(M::Manifold, p, q; kwargs...)

Check if points p and q from Manifold M are approximately equal.

Keyword arguments can be used to specify tolerances.

log(M::Manifold, p, q)

Compute the logarithmic map of point q at base point p on the Manifold M.

norm(M::Manifold, p, X)

Compute the norm of tangent vector X at point p from a Manifold M. By default this is computed using inner.

allocate(a)
allocate(a, dims::Integer...)
allocate(a, dims::Tuple)
allocate(a, T::Type)
allocate(a, T::Type, dims::Integer...)
allocate(a, T::Type, dims::Tuple)

Allocate an object similar to a. It is similar to function similar, although instead of working only on the outermost layer of a nested structure, it maps recursively through outer layers and calls similar on the innermost array-like object only. Type T is the new number element type number_eltype, if it is not given the element type of a is retained. The dims argument can be given for non-nested allocation and is forwarded to the function similar.

allocate_result(M::Manifold, f, x...)

Allocate an array for the result of function f on Manifold M and arguments x... for implementing the non-modifying operation using the modifying operation.

Usefulness of passing a function is demonstrated by methods that allocate results of musical isomorphisms.

allocate_result_type(M::Manifold, f, args::NTuple{N,Any}) where N

Return type of element of the array that will represent the result of function f and the Manifold M on given arguments args (passed as a tuple).

base_manifold(M::Manifold, depth = Val(-1))

Return the internally stored Manifold for decorated manifold M and the base manifold for vector bundles or power manifolds. The optional parameter depth can be used to remove only the first depth many decorators and return the Manifold from that level, whether its decorated or not. Any negative value deactivates this depth limit.

check_manifold_point(M::Manifold, p; kwargs...) -> Union{Nothing,String}

Return nothing when p is a point on the Manifold M. Otherwise, return an error with description why the point does not belong to manifold M.

By default, check_manifold_point returns nothing, i.e. if no checks are implemented, the assumption is to be optimistic for a point not deriving from the MPoint type.

check_size(M::Manifold, p)
check_size(M::Manifold, p, X)

Check whether p has the right representation_size for a Manifold M. Additionally if a tangent vector is given, both p and X are checked to be of corresponding correct representation sizes for points and tangent vectors on M.

By default, check_size returns nothing, i.e. if no checks are implemented, the assumption is to be optimistic.

check_tangent_vector(M::Manifold, p, X; kwargs...) -> Union{Nothing,String}

Check whether X is a valid tangent vector in the tangent space of p on the Manifold M. An implementation should first call check_manifold_point(M, p; kwargs...) and then validate X. If it is not a tangent vector, an error string should be returned.

By default, check_tangent_vector returns nothing, i.e. if no checks are implemented, the assumption is to be optimistic for tangent vectors not deriving from the TVector type.

distance(M::Manifold, p, q)

Shortest distance between the points p and q on the Manifold M.

embed!(M::Manifold, Y, p, X)

Embed a tangent vector X at a point p on the Manifold M into the ambient space and return the result in Y. This method is only available for manifolds where implicitly an embedding or ambient space is given. Additionally, embed! includes changing data representation, if applicable, i.e. if the tangents on M are not represented in the same way as tangents on the embedding, the representation is changed accordingly. This is the case for example for Lie groups, when tangent vectors are represented in the Lie algebra. The embedded tangents are then in the tangent spaces of the embedded base points.

See also: EmbeddedManifold, project!

embed!(M::Manifold, q, p)

Embed point p from the Manifold M into an ambient space. This method is only available for manifolds where implicitly an embedding or ambient space is given. Not implementing this function means, there is no proper embedding for your manifold. Additionally, embed might include changing data representation, if applicable, i.e. if points on M are not represented in the same way as their counterparts in the embedding, the representation is changed accordingly.

If you have more than one embedding, see EmbeddedManifold for defining a second embedding. If your point p is already represented in some embedding, see AbstractEmbeddedManifold how you can avoid reimplementing code from the embedded manifold

See also: EmbeddedManifold, project!

embed(M::Manifold, p, X)

Embed a tangent vector X at a point p on the Manifold M into an ambient space. This method is only available for manifolds where implicitly an embedding or ambient space is given. Not implementing this function means, there is no proper embedding for your tangent space(s).

Additionally, embed might include changing data representation, if applicable, i.e. if tangent vectors on M are not represented in the same way as their counterparts in the embedding, the representation is changed accordingly.

If you have more than one embedding, see EmbeddedManifold for defining a second embedding. If your tangent vector X is already represented in some embedding, see AbstractEmbeddedManifold how you can avoid reimplementing code from the embedded manifold

See also: EmbeddedManifold, project

embed(M::Manifold, p)

Embed point p from the Manifold M into the ambient space. This method is only available for manifolds where implicitly an embedding or ambient space is given. Additionally, embed includes changing data representation, if applicable, i.e. if the points on M are not represented in the same way as points on the embedding, the representation is changed accordingly.

See also: EmbeddedManifold, project

exp!(M::Manifold, q, p, X)
exp!(M::Manifold, q, p, X, t::Real = 1)

Compute the exponential map of tangent vector X, optionally scaled by t, at point p from manifold the Manifold M. The result is saved to q.

geodesic(M::Manifold, p, X) -> Function

Get the geodesic with initial point p and velocity X on the Manifold M. The geodesic is the curve of constant velocity that is locally distance-minimizing. This function returns a function of (time) t.

geodesic(M::Manifold, x, v, t::Real)
geodesic(M::Manifold, x, v, T::AbstractVector) -> AbstractVector

Return the point at time t or points at times t in T along the geodesic.

injectivity_radius(M::Manifold, p)

Return the distance $d$ such that exp(M, p, X) is injective for all tangent vectors shorter than $d$ (i.e. has an inverse).

injectivity_radius(M::Manifold)

Infimum of the injectivity radius of all manifold points.

injectivity_radius(M::Manifold[, x], method::AbstractRetractionMethod)
injectivity_radius(M::Manifold, x, method::AbstractRetractionMethod)

Distance $d$ such that retract(M, p, X, method) is injective for all tangent vectors shorter than $d$ (i.e. has an inverse) for point p if provided or all manifold points otherwise.

inner(M::Manifold, p, X, Y)

Compute the inner product of tangent vectors X and Y at point p from the Manifold M.

See also: MetricManifold

inverse_retract!(M::Manifold, X, p, q[, method::AbstractInverseRetractionMethod])

Compute the inverse retraction, a cheaper, approximate version of the logarithmic map), of points p and q on the Manifold M. Result is saved to X.

Inverse retraction method can be specified by the last argument, defaulting to LogarithmicInverseRetraction. See the documentation of respective manifolds for available methods.

inverse_retract(M::Manifold, x, y)
inverse_retract(M::Manifold, x, y, method::AbstractInverseRetractionMethod

Compute the inverse retraction, a cheaper, approximate version of the logarithmic map), of points p and q on the Manifold M.

Inverse retraction method can be specified by the last argument, defaulting to LogarithmicInverseRetraction. See the documentation of respective manifolds for available methods.

is_manifold_point(M::Manifold, p, throw_error = false; kwargs...)

Return whether p is a valid point on the Manifold M.

If throw_error is false, the function returns either true or false. If throw_error is true, the function either returns true or throws an error. By default the function calls check_manifold_point(M, p; kwargs...) and checks whether the returned value is nothing or an error.

is_tangent_vector(M::Manifold, p, X, throw_error = false; kwargs...)

Return whether X is a valid tangent vector at point p on the Manifold M. Returns either true or false.

If throw_error is false, the function returns either true or false. If throw_error is true, the function either returns true or throws an error. By default the function calls check_tangent_vector(M, p, X; kwargs...) and checks whether the returned value is nothing or an error.

log!(M::Manifold, X, p, q)

Compute the logarithmic map of point q at base point p on the Manifold M. The result is saved to X.

manifold_dimension(M::Manifold)

The dimension $n=\dim_{\mathcal M}$ of real space $\mathbb R^n$ to which the neighborhood of each point of the Manifold M is homeomorphic.

mid_point!(M::Manifold, q, p1, p2)

Calculate the middle between the two point p1 and p2 from manifold M. By default uses log, divides the vector by 2 and uses exp!. Saves the result in q.

mid_point(M::Manifold, p1, p2)

Calculate the middle between the two point p1 and p2 from manifold M. By default uses log, divides the vector by 2 and uses exp.

number_eltype(x)

Numeric element type of the a nested representation of a point or a vector. To be used in conjuntion with allocate or allocate_result.

project!(M::Manifold, Y, p, X)

Project ambient space representation of a vector X to a tangent vector at point p on the Manifold M. The result is saved in vector Y. This method is only available for manifolds where implicitly an embedding or ambient space is given. Additionally, project! includes changing data representation, if applicable, i.e. if the tangents on M are not represented in the same way as points on the embedding, the representation is changed accordingly. This is the case for example for Lie groups, when tangent vectors are represented in the Lie algebra. after projection the change to the Lie algebra is perfomed, too.

See also: EmbeddedManifold, embed!

project!(M::Manifold, q, p)

Project point p from the ambient space onto the Manifold M. The result is storedin q. This method is only available for manifolds where implicitly an embedding or ambient space is given. Additionally, the projection includes changing data representation, if applicable, i.e. if the points on M are not represented in the same array data, the data is changed accordingly.

See also: EmbeddedManifold, embed!

project(M::Manifold, p, X)

Project ambient space representation of a vector X to a tangent vector at point p on the Manifold M. This method is only available for manifolds where implicitly an embedding or ambient space is given. Additionally, project includes changing data representation, if applicable, i.e. if the tangents on M are not represented in the same way as points on the embedding, the representation is changed accordingly. This is the case for example for Lie groups, when tangent vectors are represented in the Lie algebra. after projection the change to the Lie algebra is perfomed, too.

See also: EmbeddedManifold, embed

project(M::Manifold, p)

Project point p from the ambient space of the Manifold M to M. This method is only available for manifolds where implicitly an embedding or ambient space is given. Additionally, the projection includes changing data representation, if applicable, i.e. if the points on M are not represented in the same array data, the data is changed accordingly.

See also: EmbeddedManifold, embed

representation_size(M::Manifold)

The size of an array representing a point on Manifold M. Returns nothing by default indicating that points are not represented using an AbstractArray.

retract!(M::Manifold, q, p, X)
retract!(M::Manifold, q, p, X, t::Real=1)
retract!(M::Manifold, q, p, X, method::AbstractRetractionMethod)
retract!(M::Manifold, q, p, X, t::Real=1, method::AbstractRetractionMethod)

Compute a retraction, a cheaper, approximate version of the exponential map, from p into direction X, scaled by t, on the Manifold manifold M. Result is saved to q.

Retraction method can be specified by the last argument, defaulting to ExponentialRetraction. See the documentation of respective manifolds for available methods.

retract(M::Manifold, p, X)
retract(M::Manifold, p, X, t::Real=1)
retract(M::Manifold, p, X, method::AbstractRetractionMethod)
retract(M::Manifold, p, X, t::Real=1, method::AbstractRetractionMethod)

Compute a retraction, a cheaper, approximate version of the exponential map, from p into direction X, scaled by t, on the Manifold M.

Retraction method can be specified by the last argument, defaulting to ExponentialRetraction. See the documentation of respective manifolds for available methods.

shortest_geodesic(M::Manifold, p, q) -> Function

Get a geodesic $\gamma_{p,q}(t)$ whose length is the shortest path between the points pand q, where $\gamma_{p,q}(0)=p$ and $\gamma_{p,q}(1)=q$. When there are multiple shortest geodesics, there is no guarantee which will be returned.

This function returns a function of time, which may be a Real or an AbstractVector.

shortest_geodesic(M::Manifold, p, q, t::Real)
shortest_geodesic(M::Manifold, p, q, T::AbstractVector) -> AbstractVector

Return the point at time t or points at times t in T along the shortest geodesic.

zero_tangent_vector!(M::Manifold, X, p)

Save to X a vector such that retracting X to the Manifold M at p produces p.

zero_tangent_vector(M::Manifold, p)

Return the tangent vector from the tangent space at p on the Manifold M, that represents the zero vector, i.e. such that a retraction at p produces p.

AbstractNumbers

An abstract type to represent the number system on which a manifold is built.

This provides concrete number types for dispatch. The two most common number types are the fields RealNumbers (ℝ for short) and ComplexNumbers (ℂ).

ComplexNumbers <: AbstractNumbers
ℂ = ComplexNumbers()

The field of complex numbers.

QuaternionNumbers <: AbstractNumbers
ℍ = QuaternionNumbers()

The division algebra of quaternions.

RealNumbers <: AbstractNumbers
ℝ = RealNumbers()

The field of real numbers.

_unify_number_systems(𝔽s::AbstractNumbers...)

Compute a number system that includes all given number systems (as sub-systems) and is closed under addition and multiplication.

number_system(M::Manifold{𝔽})

Return the number system the manifold M is based on, i.e. the parameter 𝔽.

real_dimension(𝔽::AbstractNumbers)

Return the real dimension $\dim_ℝ 𝔽$ of the AbstractNumbers system 𝔽. The real dimension is the dimension of a real vector space with which a number in 𝔽 can be identified. For example, ComplexNumbers have a real dimension of 2, and QuaternionNumbers have a real dimension of 4.

AbstractBasis{𝔽}

Abstract type that represents a basis on a manifold or a subset of it.

The type parameter 𝔽 denotes the AbstractNumbers that will be used for the vectors elements.

AbstractOrthogonalBasis{𝔽}

Abstract type that represents an orthonormal basis on a manifold or a subset of it.

The type parameter 𝔽 denotes the AbstractNumbers that will be used for the vectors elements.

AbstractOrthonormalBasis{𝔽}

Abstract type that represents an orthonormal basis on a manifold or a subset of it.

The type parameter 𝔽 denotes the AbstractNumbers that will be used for the vectors elements.

CachedBasis{𝔽,V,<:AbstractBasis{𝔽}} <: AbstractBasis{𝔽}

A cached version of the given basis with precomputed basis vectors. The basis vectors are stored in data, either explicitly (like in cached variants of ProjectedOrthonormalBasis) or implicitly.

Constructor

CachedBasis(basis::AbstractBasis, data)

DefaultBasis{𝔽}

An arbitrary basis on a manifold. This will usually be the fastest basis available for a manifold.

The type parameter 𝔽 denotes the AbstractNumbers that will be used for the vectors elements

DefaultOrthogonalBasis{𝔽}

An arbitrary orthogonal basis on a manifold. This will usually be the fastest orthogonal basis available for a manifold.

The type parameter 𝔽 denotes the AbstractNumbers that will be used for the vectors elements.

DefaultOrthonormalBasis(𝔽::AbstractNumbers = ℝ)

An arbitrary orthonormal basis on a manifold. This will usually be the fastest orthonormal basis available for a manifold.

The type parameter 𝔽 denotes the AbstractNumbers that will be used for the vectors elements.

DiagonalizingOrthonormalBasis{𝔽,TV} <: AbstractOrthonormalBasis{𝔽}

An orthonormal basis Ξ as a vector of tangent vectors (of length determined by manifold_dimension) in the tangent space that diagonalizes the curvature tensor $R(u,v)w$ and where the direction frame_direction $v$ has curvature 0.

The type parameter 𝔽 denotes the AbstractNumbers that will be used for the vectors elements.

Constructor

DiagonalizingOrthonormalBasis(frame_direction, 𝔽::AbstractNumbers = ℝ)

ProjectedOrthonormalBasis(method::Symbol, 𝔽::AbstractNumbers = ℝ)

An orthonormal basis that comes from orthonormalization of basis vectors of the ambient space projected onto the subspace representing the tangent space at a given point.

The type parameter 𝔽 denotes the AbstractNumbers that will be used for the vectors elements.

Available methods:

• :gram_schmidt uses a modified Gram-Schmidt orthonormalization.
• :svd uses SVD decomposition to orthogonalize projected vectors. The SVD-based method should be more numerically stable at the cost of an additional assumption (local metric tensor at a point where the basis is calculated has to be diagonal).

allocation_promotion_function(M::Manifold, f, args::Tuple)

Determine the function that must be used to ensure that the allocated representation is of the right type. This is needed for get_vector when a point on a complex manifold is represented by a real-valued vectors with a real-coefficient basis, so that a complex-valued vector representation is allocated.

get_basis(M::Manifold, p, B::AbstractBasis) -> CachedBasis

Compute the basis vectors of the tangent space at a point on manifold M represented by p.

Returned object derives from AbstractBasis and may have a field .vectors that stores tangent vectors or it may store them implicitly, in which case the function get_vectors needs to be used to retrieve the basis vectors.

See also: get_coordinates, get_vector

get_coordinates(M::Manifold, p, X, B::AbstractBasis)
get_coordinates(M::Manifold, p, X, B::CachedBasis)

Compute a one-dimensional vector of coefficients of the tangent vector X at point denoted by p on manifold M in basis B.

Depending on the basis, p may not directly represent a point on the manifold. For example if a basis transported along a curve is used, p may be the coordinate along the curve. If a CachedBasis is provided, their stored vectors are used, otherwise the user has to provide a method to compute the coordinates.

For the CachedBasis keep in mind that the reconstruction with get_vector requires either a dual basis or the cached basis to be selfdual, for example orthonormal

See also: get_vector, get_basis

get_vector(M::Manifold, p, X, B::AbstractBasis)

Convert a one-dimensional vector of coefficients in a basis B of the tangent space at p on manifold M to a tangent vector X at p.

Depending on the basis, p may not directly represent a point on the manifold. For example if a basis transported along a curve is used, p may be the coordinate along the curve.

For the CachedBasis keep in mind that the reconstruction from get_coordinates requires either a dual basis or the cached basis to be selfdual, for example orthonormal

See also: get_coordinates, get_basis

get_vectors(M::Manifold, p, B::AbstractBasis)

Get the basis vectors of basis B of the tangent space at point p.

hat(M::Manifold, p, Xⁱ)

Given a basis $e_i$ on the tangent space at a point p and tangent component vector $X^i$, compute the equivalent vector representation $X=X^i e_i$, where Einstein summation notation is used:

For array manifolds, this converts a vector representation of the tangent vector to an array representation. The vee map is the hat map's inverse.

number_of_coordinates(M::Manifold, B::AbstractBasis)

Compute the number of coordinates in basis B of manifold M. This also corresponds to the number of vectors represented by B, or stored within B in case of a CachedBasis.

number_system(::AbstractBasis)

The number system for the vectors of the given basis.

vee(M::Manifold, p, X)

Given a basis $e_i$ on the tangent space at a point p and tangent vector X, compute the vector components $X^i$, such that $X = X^i e_i$, where Einstein summation notation is used:

For array manifolds, this converts an array representation of the tangent vector to a vector representation. The hat map is the vee map's inverse.

AbstractVectorTransportMethod

Abstract type for methods for transporting vectors.

ParallelTransport <: AbstractVectorTransportMethod

Specify to use parallel transport as vector transport method within vector_transport_to, vector_transport_direction, or vector_transport_along.

PoleLadderTransport <: AbstractVectorTransportMethod

Specify to use pole_ladder as vector transport method within vector_transport_to, vector_transport_direction, or vector_transport_along, i.e.

Let $X\in T_p\mathcal M$ be a tangent vector at $p\in\mathcal M$ and $q\in\mathcal M$ the point to transport to. Then $x = \exp_pX$ is used to call y =pole_ladder(M, p, x, q) and the resulting vector is obtained by computing $Y = -\log_qy$.

The PoleLadderTransport posesses two advantages compared to SchildsLadderTransport:

• it is cheaper to evaluate, if you want to transport several vectors, since the mid point $c$ then stays unchanged.
• while both methods are exact if the curvature is zero, pole ladder is even exact in symmetric Riemannian manifolds^[Pennec2018]

The pole ladder was was proposed in ^{[LorenziPennec2014]}. Its name stems from the fact that it resembles a pole ladder when applied to a sequence of points usccessively.

Constructor

PoleLadderTransport(
    retraction = ExponentialRetraction(),
    inverse_retraction = LogarithmicInverseRetraction(),
)

Construct the classical pole ladder that employs exp and log, i.e. as proposed in^{[LorenziPennec2014]}. For an even cheaper transport the inner operations can be changed to an AbstractRetractionMethod retraction and an AbstractInverseRetractionMethod inverse_retraction, respectively.

ProjectionTransport <: AbstractVectorTransportMethod

Specify to use projection onto tangent space as vector transport method within vector_transport_to, vector_transport_direction, or vector_transport_along. See project for details.

SchildsLadderTransport <: AbstractVectorTransportMethod

Specify to use schilds_ladder as vector transport method within vector_transport_to, vector_transport_direction, or vector_transport_along, i.e.

Let $X\in T_p\mathcal M$ be a tangent vector at $p\in\mathcal M$ and $q\in\mathcal M$ the point to transport to. Then

where $c$ is the mid point between $q$ and $d=\exp_pX$.

This method employs the internal function schilds_ladder(M, p, d, q) that avoids leaving the manifold.

The name stems from the image of this paralleltogram in a repeated application yielding the image of a ladder. The approximation was proposed in ^{[EhlersPiraniSchild1972]}.

Constructor

SchildsLadderTransport(
    retraction = ExponentialRetraction(),
    inverse_retraction = LogarithmicInverseRetraction(),
)

Construct the classical Schilds ladder that employs exp and log, i.e. as proposed in^{[EhlersPiraniSchild1972]}. For an even cheaper transport these inner operations can be changed to an AbstractRetractionMethod retraction and an AbstractInverseRetractionMethod inverse_retraction, respectively.

pole_ladder(
    M,
    p,
    d,
    q,
    c = mid_point(M, p, q);
    retraction=ExponentialRetraction(),
    inverse_retraction=LogarithmicInverseRetraction()
)

Compute an inner step of the pole ladder, that can be used as a vector_transport_to. Let $c = \gamma_{p,q}(\frac{1}{2})$ mid point between p and q, then the pole ladder is given by

Where the classical pole ladder employs $\operatorname{retr}_d=\exp_d$ and $\operatorname{retr}_d^{-1}=\log_d$ but for an even cheaper transport these can be set to different AbstractRetractionMethod and AbstractInverseRetractionMethod.

When you have $X=log_pd$ and $Y = -\log_q \operatorname{Pl}(p,d,q)$, you will obtain the PoleLadderTransport. When performing multiple steps, this method avoidsd the switching to the tangent space. Keep in mind that after $n$ successive steps the tangent vector reads $Y_n = (-1)^n\log_q \operatorname{Pl}(p_{n-1},d_{n-1},p_n)$.

It is cheaper to evaluate than schilds_ladder, sinc if you want to form multiple ladder steps between p and q, but with different d, there is just one evaluation of a geodesic each., since the center c can be reused.

pole_ladder(
    M,
    pl,
    p,
    d,
    q,
    c = mid_point(M, p, q),
    X = allocate_result_type(M, log, d, c);
    retraction = ExponentialRetraction(),
    inverse_retraction = LogarithmicInverseRetraction()
)

Compute the pole_ladder, i.e. the result is saved in pl. X is used for storing intermediate inverse retraction.

schilds_ladder(
    M,
    p,
    d,
    q,
    c = mid_point(M, q, d);
    retraction = ExponentialRetraction(),
    inverse_retraction = LogarithmicInverseRetraction(),
)

Perform an inner step of schilds ladder, which can be used as a vector_transport_to, see SchildsLadderTransport. Let $c = \gamma_{q,d}(\frac{1}{2})$ denote the mid point on the shortest geodesic connecting $q$ and the point $d$. Then Schild's ladder reads as

Where the classical Schilds ladder employs $\operatorname{retr}_d=\exp_d$ and $\operatorname{retr}_d^{-1}=\log_d$ but for an even cheaper transport these can be set to different AbstractRetractionMethod and AbstractInverseRetractionMethod.

In consistency with pole_ladder you can change the way the mid point is computed using the optional parameter c, but note that here it's the mid point between q and d.

When you have $X=log_pd$ and $Y = \log_q \operatorname{Sl}(p,d,q)$, you will obtain the PoleLadderTransport. Then the approximation to the transported vector is given by $\log_q\operatorname{Sl}(p,d,q)$.

When performing multiple steps, this method avoidsd the switching to the tangent space. Hence after $n$ successive steps the tangent vector reads $Y_n = \log_q \operatorname{Pl}(p_{n-1},d_{n-1},p_n)$.

schilds_ladder!(
    M,
    sl
    p,
    d,
    q,
    c = mid_point(M, q, d),
    X = allocate_result_type(M, log, d, c);
    retraction = ExponentialRetraction(),
    inverse_retraction = LogarithmicInverseRetraction()
)

Compute schilds_ladder and return the value in the parameter sl. If the required mid point c was computed before, it can be passed using c, and the allocation of new memory can be avoided providing a tangent vector X for the interims result.

vector_transport_along!(
    M::Manifold,
    Y,
    p,
    X,
    c::AbstractVector,
    method::AbstractVectorTransportMethod
) where {T}

Compute the vector transport along a discretized curve c using an AbstractVectorTransportMethod method succesively along the sampled curve.

function vector_transport_along!(
    M::Manifold,
    Y,
    p,
    X,
    c::AbstractVector,
    method::PoleLadderTransport
)

Compute the vector transport along a discretized curve using PoleLadderTransport succesively along the sampled curve. This method is avoiding additional allocations as well as inner exp/log by performing all ladder steps on the manifold and only computing one tangent vector in the end.

vector_transport_along!(
    M::Manifold,
    Y,
    p,
    X,
    c::AbstractVector,
    method::SchildsLadderTransport
)

Compute the vector transport along a discretized curve using SchildsLadderTransport succesively along the sampled curve. This method is avoiding additional allocations as well as inner exp/log by performing all ladder steps on the manifold and only computing one tangent vector in the end.

vector_transport_along!(M::Manifold, Y, p, X, c)
vector_transport_along!(M::Manifold, Y, p, X, c, method::AbstractVectorTransportMethod)

Transport a vector X from the tangent space at a point p on the Manifold M along the curve represented by c using the method, which defaults to ParallelTransport. The result is saved to Y.

vector_transport_along(M::Manifold, p, X, c)
vector_transport_along(M::Manifold, p, X, c, method::AbstractVectorTransportMethod)

Transport a vector X from the tangent space at a point p on the Manifold M along the curve represented by c using the method, which defaults to ParallelTransport.

vector_transport_direction!(M::Manifold, Y, p, X, d)
vector_transport_direction!(M::Manifold, Y, p, X, d, method::AbstractVectorTransportMethod)

Transport a vector X from the tangent space at a point p on the Manifold M in the direction indicated by the tangent vector d at p. By default, exp and vector_transport_to! are used with the method, which defaults to ParallelTransport. The result is saved to Y.

vector_transport_direction(M::Manifold, p, X, d)
vector_transport_direction(M::Manifold, p, X, d, method::AbstractVectorTransportMethod)

Transport a vector X from the tangent space at a point p on the Manifold M in the direction indicated by the tangent vector d at p. By default, exp and vector_transport_to! are used with the method, which defaults to ParallelTransport.

vector_transport_to!(M::Manifold, Y, p, X, q, method::PoleLadderTransport)

Perform a vector transport by using PoleLadderTransport.

vector_transport_to!(M::Manifold, Y, p, X, q, method::ProjectionTransport)

Transport a vector X from the tangent space at p on the Manifold M by interpreting it as an element of the embedding and then projecting it onto the tangent space at q. This function needs to be separately implemented for each manifold because projection project may also change vector representation (if it's different than in the embedding) and it is assumed that the vector X already has the correct representation for M.

vector_transport_to!(M::Manifold, Y, p, X, q, method::SchildsLadderTransport)

Perform a vector transport by using SchildsLadderTransport.

vector_transport_to!(M::Manifold, Y, p, X, q)
vector_transport_to!(M::Manifold, Y, p, X, q, method::AbstractVectorTransportMethod)

Transport a vector X from the tangent space at a point p on the Manifold M along the shortest_geodesic to the tangent space at another point q. By default, the AbstractVectorTransportMethod method is ParallelTransport. The result is saved to Y.

vector_transport_to(M::Manifold, p, X, q)
vector_transport_to(M::Manifold, p, X, q, method::AbstractVectorTransportMethod)

Transport a vector X from the tangent space at a point p on the Manifold M along the shortest_geodesic to the tangent space at another point q. By default, the AbstractVectorTransportMethod method is ParallelTransport.

@decorator_transparent_fallback(ex)
@decorator_transparent_fallback(fallback_case = :intransparent, ex)

This macro introduces an additional implementation for a certain additional case. This can especially be used if for an already transparent function and an abstract intermediate type a change in the default is required. For implementing a concrete type, neither this nor any other trick is necessary. One just implements the function as before. Note that a decorator that is_default_decorator still dispatches to the transparent case.

• :transparent states, that the function is transparently passed on to the manifold that is decorated by the AbstractDecoratorManifold M, which is determined using the function decorated_manifold.
• :intransparent states that an implementation for this decorator is required, and if none of the types provides one, an error is issued. Since this macro provides such an implementation, this is the default.
• :parent states, that this function passes on to the supertype instead of to the decorated manifold.

Inline definitions are not supported. The function signature however may contain keyword arguments and a where clause. It does not allow for parameters with default values.

Examples

@decorator_transparent_fallback function log!(M::AbstractGroupManifold, X, p, q)
    log!(decorated_manifold(M), X, p, Q)
end
@decorator_transparent_fallback :transparent function log!(M::AbstractGroupManifold, X, p, q)
    log!(decorated_manifold(M), X, p, Q)
end

@decorator_transparent_function(ex)
@decorator_transparent_function(fallback_case = :intransparent, ex)

Introduce the function specified by ex to act transparently with respect to AbstractDecoratorManifolds. This introduces the possibility to modify the kind of transparency the implementation is done for. This optional first argument, the Symbol within fallback_case. This macro can be used to define a function and introduce it as transparent to other decorators. Note that a decorator that is_default_decorator still dispatches to the transparent case.

The cases of transparency are

• :transparent states, that the function is transparently passed on to the manifold that is decorated by the AbstractDecoratorManifold M, which is determined using the function decorated_manifold.
• :intransparent states that an implementation for this decorator is required, and if none of the types provides one, an error is issued. Since this macro provides such an implementation, this is the default.
• :parent states, that this function passes on to the supertype instead of to the decorated manifold. Passing is performed using the invoke function where the type of manifold is replaced by its supertype.

Innkoline-definitions are not yet covered – the function signature however may contain keyword arguments and a where clause.

Examples

@decorator_transparent_function log!(M::AbstractDecoratorManifold, X, p, q)
    log!(decorated_manifold(M), X, p, Q)
end
@decorator_transparent_function :parent log!(M::AbstractDecoratorManifold, X, p, q)
    log!(decorated_manifold(M), X, p, Q)
end

@decorator_transparent_signature(ex)

Introduces a given function to be transparent with respect to all decorators. The function is adressed by its signature in ex.

Supports standard, keyword arguments and where clauses. Doesn't support parameters with default values. It introduces a dispatch on several transparency modes

The cases of transparency are

• :transparent states, that the function is transparently passed on to the manifold that is decorated by the AbstractDecoratorManifold M, which is determined using the function decorated_manifold. This is the default.
• :intransparent states that an implementation for this decorator is required, and if none of the types provides one, an error is issued.
• :parent states, that this function passes on to the supertype instead of to the decorated manifold.

Inline definitions are not supported. The function signature however may contain keyword arguments and a where clause.

The dispatch kind can later still be set to something different, see decorator_transparent_dispatch

Examples:

@decorator_transparent_signature log!(M::AbstractDecoratorManifold, X, p, q)
@decorator_transparent_signature log!(M::TD, X, p, q) where {TD<:AbstractDecoratorManifold}
@decorator_transparent_signature isapprox(M::AbstractDecoratorManifold, p, q; kwargs...)

AbstractDecoratorManifold{𝔽} <: Manifold{𝔽}

An AbstractDecoratorManifold indicates that to some extent a manifold subtype decorates another Manifold in the sense that it either

• it extends the functionality of a manifold with further features
• it defines a new manifold that internally uses functions from the decorated manifold

with the main intent that several or most functions of Manifold are transparently passed through to the manifold that is decorated. This way a function implemented for a decorator acts transparent on all other decorators, i.e. they just pass them through. If the decorator the function is implemented for is not among the decorators, an error is issued. By default all base manifold functions, for example exp and log are transparent for all decorators.

Transparency of functions with respect to decorators can be specified using the macros @decorator_transparent_fallback, @decorator_transparent_function and @decorator_transparent_signature.

decorated_manifold(M::AbstractDecoratorManifold)

Return the manifold decorated by the decorator M. Defaults to M.manifold.

decorator_transparent_dispatch(f, M::Manifold, args...) -> Val

Given a Manifold M and a function f(M,args...), indicate, whether a function is Val(:transparent) or Val(:intransparent) for the (decorated) Manifold M. Another possibility is, that for M and given args... the function f should invoke Ms Val(:parent) implementation, see @decorator_transparent_function for details.

default_decorator_dispatch(M) -> Val

Return whether by default to dispatch the the inner manifold of a decorator (Val(true)) or not (Val(false). For more details see is_decorator_transparent.

is_decorator_transparent(f, M::Manifold, args...) -> Bool

Given a Manifold M and a function f(M, args...), indicate, whether an AbstractDecoratorManifold acts transparently for f. This means, it just passes through down to the internally stored manifold. Transparency is only defined for decorator manifolds and by default all decorators are transparent. A function that is affected by the decorator indicates this by returning false. To change this behaviour, see decorator_transparent_dispatch.

If a decorator manifold is not in general transparent, it might still pass down for the case that a decorator is the default decorator, see is_default_decorator.

is_default_decorator(M) -> Bool

For any manifold that is a subtype of AbstractDecoratorManifold, this function indicates whether a certain manifold M acts as a default decorator.

This yields that all functions are passed through to the decorated Manifold if M is indicated as default. This overwrites all is_decorator_transparent values.

This yields the following advantange: For a manifold one usually implicitly assumes for example a metric. To avoid reimplementation of this metric when introducing a second metric, the first metric can be set to be the default, i.e. its implementaion is already given by the undecorated case.

Value returned by this function is determined by default_decorator_dispatch, which returns a Val-wrapped boolean for type stability of certain functions.

ValidationCoTVector <: CoTVector

Represent a cotangent vector to a point on an ValidationManifold, i.e. on a manifold where data can be represented by arrays. The array is stored internally and semantically. This distinguished the value from ValidationMPoints and ValidationTVectors.

ValidationMPoint <: MPoint

Represent a point on an ValidationManifold, i.e. on a manifold where data can be represented by arrays. The array is stored internally and semantically. This distinguished the value from ValidationTVectors and ValidationCoTVectors.

ValidationManifold{𝔽,M<:Manifold{𝔽}} <: AbstractDecoratorManifold{𝔽}

A manifold to encapsulate manifolds working on array representations of MPoints and TVectors in a transparent way, such that for these manifolds it's not necessary to introduce explicit types for the points and tangent vectors, but they are encapsulated/stripped automatically when needed.

This manifold is a decorator for a manifold, i.e. it decorates a Manifold M with types points, vectors, and covectors.

ValidationTVector <: TVector

Represent a tangent vector to a point on an ValidationManifold, i.e. on a manifold where data can be represented by arrays. The array is stored internally and semantically. This distinguished the value from ValidationMPoints and ValidationCoTVectors.

array_value(p)

Return the internal array value of an ValidationMPoint, ValidationTVector, or ValidationCoTVector if the value p is encapsulated as such. Return p if it is already an array.

AbstractEmbeddedManifold{𝔽,T<:AbstractEmbeddingType,𝔽} <: AbstractDecoratorManifold{𝔽}

This abstract type indicates that a concrete subtype is an embedded manifold with the additional property, that its points are given in the embedding. This also means, that the default implementation of embed is just the identity, since the points are already stored in the form suitable for this embedding specified. This also holds true for tangent vectors.

Furthermore, depending on the AbstractEmbeddingType different methods are transparently used from the embedding, for example the inner product or even the distance function. Specifying such an embedding type transparently passes the compuation onwards to the embedding (note again, that no embed is required) and hence avoids to reimplement these methods in the manifold that is embedded.

This should be used for example for check_manifold_point or check_tangent_vector, which should first invoke the test of the embedding and then test further constraints the representation in the embedding has for these points to be valid.

Technically this is realised by making the AbstractEmbeddedManifold is a decorator for the Manifolds that are subtypes.

AbstractEmbeddingType

A type used to specify properties of an AbstractEmbeddedManifold.

AbstractIsometricEmbeddingType <: AbstractEmbeddingType

Characterizes an embedding as isometric. For this case the inner product is passed from the embedded manifold to the embedding.

DefaultEmbeddingType <: AbstractEmbeddingType

A type of default embedding that does not have any special properties.

DefaultIsometricEmbeddingType <: AbstractIsometricEmbeddingType

An isometric embedding type that acts as a default, i.e. it has no specifig properties beyond its isometric property.

EmbeddedManifold{𝔽, MT <: Manifold, NT <: Manifold} <: AbstractDecoratorManifold{𝔽}

A type to represent an explicit embedding of a Manifold M of type MT embedded into a manifold N of type NT.

!!!note This type is not required if a manifold M is to be embedded in one specific manifold N. One can then just implement embed! and project!. Only for a second –maybe considered non-default– embedding, this type should be considered in order to dispatch on different embed and project methods for different embeddings N.

Fields

• manifold the manifold that is an embedded manifold
• embedding a second manifold, the first one is embedded into

Constructor

EmbeddedManifold(M, N)

Generate the EmbeddedManifold of the Manifold M into the Manifold N.

TransparentIsometricEmbedding <: AbstractIsometricEmbeddingType

Specify that an embedding is the default isometric embedding. This even inherits logarithmic and exponential map as well as retraction and inverse retractions from the embedding.

For an example, see SymmetricMatrices which are isometrically embedded in the Euclidean space of matrices but also inherit exponential and logarithmic maps.

base_manifold(M::AbstractEmbeddedManifold, d::Val{N} = Val(-1))

Return the base manifold of M that is enhanced with its embedding. While functions like inner might be overwritten to use the (decorated) manifold representing the embedding, the basemanifold is the manifold itself in the sense that detemining e.g. the [`isdefault_metric](@ref) does not fall back to check with the embedding but with the manifold itself. For this abstract case, justM` is returned.

base_manifold(M::EmbeddedManifold, d::Val{N} = Val(-1))

Return the base manifold of M that is enhanced with its embedding. For this specific type the internally stored enhanced manifold M.manifold is returned.

check_manifold_point(M::AbstractEmbeddedManifold, p; kwargs)

check whether a point p is a valid point on the AbstractEmbeddedManifold, i.e. that embed(M, p) is a valid point on the embedded manifold.

check_tangent_vector(M::AbstractEmbeddedManifold, p, X; check_base_point = true, kwargs...)

check that embed(M, p, X) is a valid tangent to embed(M, p), where check_base_point determines whether the validity of p is checked, too.

default_embedding_dispatch(M::AbstractEmbeddedManifold)

This method indicates that an AbstractEmbeddedManifold is the default and hence acts completely transparently and passes all functions transparently onwards. This is used by the AbstractDecoratorManifold within default_decorator_dispatch. By default this is set to Val(false).

get_embedding(M::AbstractEmbeddedManifold)

Return the Manifold N an AbstractEmbeddedManifold is embedded into.

get_embedding(M::EmbeddedManifold)

Return the Manifold N an EmbeddedManifold is embedded into.

DefaultManifold <: Manifold

This default manifold illustrates the main features of the interface and provides a skeleton to build one's own manifold. It is a simplified/shortened variant of Euclidean from Manifolds.jl.

This manifold further illustrates how to type your manifold points and tangent vectors. Note that the interface does not require this, but it might be handy in debugging and educative situations to verify correctness of involved variabes.